Child Labour Today:

During The Industrial Revolution First Came To Britain And The U.S., There Was A High Demand For Labor. Families Quickly Migrated From The Rural Farm Areas To The Newly Industrialized Cities To Find Work. Once They Got There, Things Did Not Look As Bright As They Did. To Survive In Even The Lowest Level Of Poverty, Families Had To Have Every Able Member Of The Family Go To Work. This Led To The High Rise In Child Labor In Factories. Children Were Not Treated Well, Overworked, And Underpaid For A Long Time Before Anyone Tried To Change Things For Them
Although Many Countries Have Laws That Forbid Child Labour Under A Certain Age, There Are Millions Of Children All Over The World Who Are Forced To Work, Especially In Asia, Africa And Latin America. Common For Children Is Factory Work, Working On Farms Or Even Prostitution . Some Work As Tourists Guides ; Others Sell Things On The Streets Or Are Beggars . According To The United Nations There Are About 200 Million Child Workers All Over The World. Among Them Are About A Hundred Million Who Work In Dangerous Jobs. Over 22,000 Children Die In Accidents At Work Every Year.
Most Children In The Third World Work In Agriculture .Children Work On Sugar Plantations , Sometimes As Young As Four. Others Work On The Streets. They Polish Shoes, Wash Cars, Carry Luggage Or Do Any Chore That Is Thinkable. The Majority Live In Slums On The Edge Of Big  Cities. Sometimes Children Are Forced To Be Prostitutes Or Have To Serve Rebel Or Army Groups In Civil Wars . In Iran, Thousands Of Children Served As Soldiers In The War Against Iraq During The 1980s.
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 Although The Internationally Recommended Minimum Age For Work Is 15 Years (Ilo Convention No. 138) And The Number Of Child Workers Under The Age Of 10 Is Far From Negligible, Almost All The Data Available On Child Labour Concerns The 10-To-14 Age Group. Combining Various Official Sources, The Ilo Estimates That More Than 73 Million Children In That Age Group Alone Were Economically Active In 1995, Representing 13.2 Per Cent Of All 10-To-14 Year Olds Around The World.
The Greatest Numbers Were Found In Asia - 44.6 Million (13 Per Cent) Followed By Africa - 23.6 Million (By Far The Highest Rate At 26.3 Per Cent) And Latin America - 5.1 Million (9.8 Per Cent).   Estimates By Country Showed The Following Rates Of Economic Activity Among Children 10-To-14:
Bangladesh (30.1 Per Cent), China ( I 1.6), India (14.4), Pakistan (17.7), Turkey (24), Cote D'lvoire (20.5), Egypt ( 11.2), Kenya (41.3), Nigeria (25.8), Senegal (31.4), Argentina (4.5), Brazil (16.1), Mexico (6.7), Italy (0.4), Portugal (1.8).
"But This Is Only Part Of The Picture," Says Assefa Bequele, Departmental Director And Child Labour Specialist At The Ilo. "No Reliable Figures On Workers Under 10 Are Available Though Their Numbers, We Know, Are Significant. The Same Is True Of Children Between 14 And 15 On Whom Few Reports Exist. If All Of These Could Be Counted And If Proper Account Were Taken Of The Domestic Work Performed Full-Time By Girls, The Total Number Of Child Workers Around The World Today Might Well Be In The Hundreds Of Millions."
Though Mostly Prevalent In The Developing Regions, Child Labour Also Exist In Richer Industrialized Countries. "In Southern Europe, There Have Always Been Relatively Large Numbers Of Children Working For Pay, In Particular In Seasonal Activities, Street Trades, Small Workshops Or In A Home Setting," Notes An Ilo Report - Prepared For A Meeting To Be Held In Conjunction With This Year's Session Of The International Labour Conference (4-20 June 1996).
In Central And Eastern Europe, The Difficulties Connected With The Transition From A Centrally Planned To A Market Economy Has Led To A Substantial Increase In Child Labour. The Ilo Report Points Out That "The Same Is True Of The United States, Where The Growth Of The Service Sector, The Rapid Increase In The Supply Of Part-Time Jobs And The Search For More Flexible Workforce Have Contributed To The Expansion Of The Child Labour Market."
Traditionally, The Proportion Of Working Children Has Been Much Higher In Rural Than In Urban Areas - Nine Out Of Ten Are Engaged In Agricultural Or Related Activities. In The Towns And Cities Of Developing Countries, Where Child Labour Has Increased Steadily As A Result Of The Rapid Urbanization Of Recent Years, Working Children Are Found Mainly In Trade And Services And To A Lesser Extent In The Manufacturing Sector.
Experimental Statistical Surveys Carried Out By The Ilo In Ghana, India, Indonesia And Senegal Have Shown That The Economic Activity Of Over Three Quarters Of Children Between The Ages Of And 14 Takes Place In A Family Enterprise Setting. With The Exception Of Latin America Where Their Numbers Appear To Be Substantial, "Children Employed As Wage Earners Usually Account For A Relatively Small Percentage Of Total Child Labour," Says The Report.   "At The International Level," Notes The Report, "Attention Focuses Mainly On Children Employed In Third World Countries And Predominantly Export Industries, Such As Textiles, Clothing, Carpets And Footwear. In Fact, Though, Children Producing For Export Are Substantially Fewer Than Those Employed In Branches Of Activity Geared Essentially To Meeting Domestic Consumption Needs."
Available Statistics Suggest That More Boys Than Girls Work. "It Should Be Borne In Mind, However, That The Number Of Working Girls Is Often Underestimated By Statistical Surveys, As They Usually Do Not Take Into Account Full-Time Housework Performed By Many Children, The Vast Majority Of Whom Are Girls, In Order To Enable Their Parents To Go To Work."   Girls, Moreover, Tend To Work Longer Hours, On Average, Than Do Boys. "This Is Especially True For The Many Girls Employed As Domestic Workers, A Type Of Employment In Which Hours Of Work Are Typically Extremely Long. This Is Also The Case Of Girls Employed In Other Types Of Jobs Who, In Addition To Their Professional Activity, Must Help With The Housework In Their Parents' Home."
One Of The Factors Affecting The Supply Of Child Labour Is The High Cost, In Real Terms, Of Obtaining An Education. Many Children Work To Cover The Costs Of School Expenses. But, "Many Schools Serving The Poor Are Of Such Abysmal Quality, Or Chances Of Upward Mobility For Graduates Are So Slim, That The Expected Return Is Not Equal To The Sacrifice Made...While It Is True That Many Children Drop Out Of School Because They Have To Work, It Is Equally True That Many Become So Discouraged By School That They Prefer To Work."
Refuting The "Nimble Fingers" Argument.
In Manufacturing Industries, Children Are Most Likely To Be Employed, Says The Report, "When Their Labour Is Less Expensive Or Less Troublesome Than That Of Adults, When Other Labour Is Scarce, And When They Are Considered Irreplaceable By Reason Of Their Size Or Perceived Dexterity."
The Ilo Investigated This Latter Question In 1992 As It Applied In The Hand-Woven Carpet And Glass Bracelet (Bangles) Industries In India, Subsequently Expanding Its Studies To Include The Diamond Polishing, Gem Polishing, Slate, Limestone And Mosaic Chip Quarrying Industries.   The Findings Of These Studies, Says The Ilo, "Clearly Refute The 'Nimble Fingers' Argument - The Claim That Only Children Can Do Certain Jobs, Or Can Do Them Better Than Adults." Very Often, The Studies Found, "The Jobs That Only Children Perform Consist Of Menial Unskilled Work That Adults Could Do At Least As Quickly."
"Some Of The Best Carpets, Those Having The Greatest Density Of Small Knots, Are Woven By Adults," States The Report. If Child Dexterity Is Not Uniquely Necessary To Knot The Finest Carpets, It Is Difficult To Imagine Other Trades For Which The 'Nimble Fingers' Argument Could Be Valid.
Many Working Children Face Significant Threats To Their Health And Safety. The Majority Are Involved In Farming And Are Routinely Exposed To Harsh Climate, Sharpened Tools, Heavy Loads As Well, Increasingly, As To Toxic Chemicals And Motorized Equipment.   Others, Particularly Girls Working As Domestic Servants Away From Their Homes, Are Frequent Victims Of Physical, Mental And Sexual Abuses Which Can Have Devastating Consequences On Their Health.
"Prostitution Is Another Type Of Activity In Which Children, Especially Girls, Are Increasingly Found," Says The Ilo Report. "The Aids Epidemic Is A Contributing Factor To This Trend, As Adults See The Use Of Children For Sexual Purposes As The Best Means Of Preventing Infection. The Laissez-Faire Attitude Of The Authorities In Charge Of National And International Tourism Is Also Largely Responsible For The Current Situation." Another "Extremely Serious Problem," Says The Report, Is Child Slavery.
"Available Information Points To The Existence Of Traditional Forms Of Child Slavery In South Asia And Sub-Saharan East Africa. Instances Have Also Been Found In Two Latin American Countries." Contemporary Forms Of Child Slavery However, Appear To Be Evolving " Either By A Link Being Established Between An Adult' S Work Contract And The Availability Of A Child Or By The Exchange Of A Child For A Sum Of Money That Is Often Described As An Advance On Wages."
"A Large Number Of Child Slaves" Who, According To Reports Cited In The Ilo Report, May Number In The Tens Of Millions, "Are To Be Found In Agriculture, Domestic Help, The Sex Industry, The Carpet And Textile Industries, Quarrying And Brick Making."
"Child Slavery Predominates Mainly Where There Are Social Systems Based On The Exploitation Of Poverty, Such As Debt Bondage, When The Motivation Is The Debt Incurred By A Family To Meet A Social Or Religious Obligation Or Simply To Acquire The Means Of Survival," Says The Report, Adding That Wars Are Also Conducive To Child Slavery.
"A Different Approach Is Needed For Each Of These Different Forms Of Child Slavery," Warns The Ilo. "In The First Instance, Any External, And Particularly International, Intervention Is Doomed To Failure If It Is Not Accompanied By A Process Of Social Transformation Implemented By The Communities Concerned. In The Second Case, The Enslavement Of Civil Populations In The Context Of An Armed Conflict Is A Crime Against Humanity," Which The International Community Has An Obligation To Stop And To Punish. There Is A Growing Body Of Opinion "That National And International Efforts Need To Be More Sharply Focused On The Most Abusive And Hazardous Forms Of Child Labour, Granting Them First Concern And Priority," Underlines The Report.
"Perhaps The Most Telling Social Argument Against Child Labour Is That Its Effects Are Highly Discriminatory, Adding To The Burden And Disadvantage Of Individuals And Groups Already Among The Socially Excluded While Benefiting Those Who Are Privileged."
"For That Reason, Child Labour Is Inconsistent With Democracy And Social Justice."
Estimated Percentages Of Economically Active Children Between 10 And 14 Years Of Age, 1995   (Selected Countries And Territories)
 Africa
 
•    Algeria   1.63
•    Burkina Faso   51.05
•    Burundi   48.97
•    Cameroon   25.25
•    Cote D'lvoire   20.46
•    Egypt   11.23
•    Ethiopia   42.30
•    Ghana   13.27
•    Kenya   41.27
•    Mali   54.53
•    Morocco   5.61
•    Niger   45.17
•    Nigeria   25.75
•    Senegal   31.36
•    South Africa   0.00
•    Tunisia   0.00
•    Uganda   45.31
•    Zambia   16.27
•    Zimbabwe   29.44
 
Asia
 
•    Bangladesh   30.12
•    Bhutan   55.10
•    China   11.55
•    East Timor   45.39
•    Hong Kong   0.00
•    India   14.37
•    Indonesia   9.55
•    Iran   4.71
•    Iraq   2.95
•    Japan   0.00
•    Jordan   0.68
•    Malaysia   3.16
•    Nepal   45.18
•    Pakistan   17.65
•    Philippines   8.04
•    Saudia Arabia   0.00
•    Syrian Arab Rep   5.78
•    Turkey   24.00
•    Thailand   16.22
•    Viet Nam   9.12
•    Yemen   20.1
Europe
 
•    Albania   1.11
•    Hungary   0.17
•    Italy   0.38
•    Portugal   1.76
•    Romania   0.17
Latin America
 
•    Argentina   4.53
•    Bolivia   14.36
•    Brazil   16.09
•    Chile   0.00
•    Colombia   6.62
•    Costa Rica   5.48
•    Cuba   0.00
•    Dominican Rep   16.06
•    Guatemala   16.22
•    Haiti   25.30
•    Mexico   6.73
•    Nicaragua   14.05
•    Paraguay   7.87
•    Peru   2.48
•    Uruguay   2.08
•    Venezuela   0.9
 
Oceania
 
•    Papua New Guinea   19.31
•    Solomon Islands   28.89
•    Polynesia   3.67

Statistics On Child Workers In China
(Child Labour Bullettin N. 25, April 1996)
Data-Collection In China Is Difficult Due To Limited Accessibility To Information, Particularly On Sensitive Issues Like Industrial Accidents, Child Labour, Prostitution, Etc. Moreover, The Absence Of Independent Non-Government Organisations (Ngos) In China Means That It Is Difficult To Establish Cross-References To Official Information From Independent Sources.
Although There Are No Comprehensive Statistics, Estimates Published In Various Newspapers And Magazines Provide A Starting Point For Constructing The Picture. In Addition, The Extent Of Child Labour Can Be Inferred From Indirect Information On The Enrollment And Drop-Out Rates Among School-Age Children.
It Is Estimated That Half A Million Children Migrated To The Southern Coast And Guangdong Province In 1991 Alone (Asian Labour Update, No. 16, July-September 1994, Hong Kong). Most Of Them Are Believed To Be Engaged In Some Kind Of Income-Earning Activities (Child Workers In Asia, Vol. Ii, No. 1, Jan-March 1995, Thailand). It Is Obvious That They Will Take Up Some Jobs, Notably In The Mushrooming Small-Scale Rural Enterprises (Township-And-Village-Level Enterprises, Tves, And Private Enterprises) Where Law Enforcement Is Much Less Effective Than In Foreign-Invested Enterprises. It Has Been Reported That In Some Rural Enterprises, Child Workers Make Up As Much As 20% Of The Workforce (Workers' Daily, 1993.08.27, China). It Has Been Reported That The Coastal Provinces Of Zhejiang And Fujian, Where Rural Enterprises Are Booming, Are The Regions With The Largest Number Of Child Workers. Most Are Around 13 And 14 Years Of Age, And Are Working In Various Rural Enterprises (Legal Daily, 1995.05.02, China).
The Actual Number Of Child Workers In China Far Exceeds Half A Million If We Take Into Account The Number Of Non Enrolled School-Age Children And Drop Outs, And Their 'Career Paths'. As Shown In The Following Calculation, The Number Of Child Workers Nationwide Is Estimated At Around Five Million.
As Stated In The Report, In 1993 A Total Of 2.61 Million School-Age Children Did Not Enroll In Primary Schools, Representing 2% Of The Country's School-Age Children. The Drop-Out Rates Among Primary And Junior Secondary School Students In 1992 Were 2.19% And 5.7% Respectively.
Discounting The Reliability Of Official Data, These Percentages Alone Represent An Enormous Number Of Children Who Stay Out Of School. The Number Is Even Greater If We Include Those Who Do Not Go On With Their Studies After Primary School. Calculations Based On Official Data Reveal That In 1993 There Were About 10.66 Million Minors Staying Out Of School (4.94 Million Primary School Students And 5.72 Million Junior Secondary School Students).
Out Of School, Most Of These Children Are Expected To Take Up Jobs To Help Alleviate Their Family's Financial Burden. Taking This Into Account, The Current Number Of Child Workers Throughout The Country Is Estimated At Around Five Million, Assuming That 50% Ofthe Minors Who Stay Out Of School Take Up Work. This Tends To Be A Rather Conservative Estimate, As Much Higher Percentages Have Been Reported.
The Educational Authorities In Sichuan Conducted A Study On 58 Secondary And Primary Schools In A Certain County And Found That In The First Term Of 1993, There Were 5,260 Drop Outs (19% Of The Total Number Of Students). 85% Of These Drop Outs Went To Work Outside The Province. (Dapeng Bay, June 1995, China)
Among The Drop-Outs And Non-Enrolled Children, Girls Make Up A Marked Majority. In 1993, More Than 2/3 Of The 2.61 Million Non-Enrolled Primary School Children Were Girls (Sing Tao Evening Post, 1995.02.09, Hong Kong). Hard-Hit By Rural Poverty And The Increasing School Fees, Rural Families Invariably Force Girls To Quit School So That They Can Take Up Income-Earning Sideline Jobs At Home. Some Parents Simply Do Not Send Their Girls To School. In General, The Rate Of School Enrollment For Girls Is Lower Than That For Boys. It Is Also Not Uncommon For Families To Send Their Daughters To Work In The Tves Or As Babysitters And Domestic Servants In The Cities. Some Girls Follow Their Neighbours All The Way To Look For Jobs In The Coastal Special Economic Zones. Factory Bosses Are Eager To Recruit These Young Hands, As They Can Keep Their Wages At A Minimum. A 1991 Study Of Six Provinces Including Guangdong, Shandong, Liaoning And Hebei Recorded 1,217 Child Workers In Some Of The Counties And Villages. Among Them, 880 Were Girls (73.5%) (Iron Rice Bowl, Black Rice Bowl And Golden Rice Bowl, 1993, China). This Is Just One Of The Myriad Examples Of The Deep-Rooted Discrimination Against Girls In China.
Setbacks In China 'S Educational Policy
While The Report States That Rural Poverty Has Held Back The Implementation Of Compulsory Education In Poor Areas, It Fails To Face Up To The Role Of The Educational Policy In Creating The Problems Of Non-Enrollment And Dropping Out.
Education In China Is Provided On The Basis Of A Three-Level System Whereby Senior Secondary Schools Are Run In Counties; Junior Secondary Schools, In Towns; Primary Schools, In Villages. Administratively, Local Governments At Different Levels Are Responsible For School Management At The Corresponding Levels. Financially, The Central Government Pays For The Wages Of State Teachers (Centrally Allocated And On State Payrolls) And Part Of The Capital Expenses. In Other Words, Local Governments Have To Take Care Of The Rest Of The Capital Expenses And Other Recurrent Expenses. This Is What The Chinese Government Describes As 'Education Run By The People'. In Practice, This Is Tantamount To 'Limited Education For The People' As Education Is Given A Low Priority, Especially In Poor Areas. Ironically, The Poor Villages, To Which The Central Government Should Commit More Resources, Are Granted The Precious 'Decentralisation'.
Educational Expenses From Village Governments Are Minimal. Villagers Have To Bear The Major Financial Burden. In Poor Villages Where People Can Barely Support Their Basic Living, Little Can Be Collected For Educational Purposes. Moreover, The Government Only Pays Half Of The Wages Of 'Collective Teachers' Recruited By The Schools Themselves (As Against Those Allo Cated By The State). The Other Half Is To Be Paid By The Schools Themselves. In Practice, The Burden Is Shifted To The Students Who Are Required To Pay For Various Kinds Of Expenses. Even Though Basic Education In China Is Free For All, Students Still Have To Pay Miscellaneous Charges To Cover The Schools' Operating Expenses. There Are Various Fees And Charges Such As Application Fees, Examination Fees, Extra Lesson Charges, Examination Paper Fees, Library Charges, Insurance Charges, Health Care Charges, Heating Charges, Water Charges, Electricity Charges, And Fundraising For Various Campaigns. Such Expenses Place A Great Burden On Families In Poor Areas. In View Of The Financial Burden And The Bleak Prospect Of Higher Education, Many School-Age Children, Especially Girls, Are Forced To Drop Out Of School. Some Stay At Home, Helping With Domestic Chores; Some Get Into Sideline Jobs; Some Work As Child Workers In Local Enterprises Or Even In Distant Regions Along The Coast. 
World Trade And Working Children
The Exploitation Of Child Labour Is A Worldwide Problem. Many Millions Of Children Suffer As A Result Of Working Too Young, For Too Many Hours, And In Hazardous Conditions. By The Time Such Children Reach Adulthood They Are Often Damaged Physically, Emotionally, Morally And Intellectually; They Have Lost The Opportunity For An Education That Would Open Up A Better Future.
Children Are Exploited Because They Offer Employers A Cheap Workforce, Do Not Protest And Are Largely Unrepresented By Trades Unions. In The Long-Term, However, The Exploitation Of Child Labour Not Only Damages The Children Concerned But Also Inhibits The Emergence Of A Skilled Workforce, Forcing The Countries Concerned Into A Cycle Of Impoverishment.
The Conclusion Of The Uruguay Round Of The General Agreement On Tariffs And Trade (Gatt) Aimed To Lift Restrictions On Markets And Increase World Trade. The First Ministerial Meeting Of The World Trade Organization, Set Up To Administer International Trade, Will Take Place In Autumn '96. It Is Against This Background That The Recent Calls For Trade Boycotts On Goods Produced By Child Labour Have Gained Currency. Western Consumers Are Naturally Concerned That The Products They Buy From Abroad Should Not Have Been Produced Using Methods That Exploit Children. Trade Unions In The 'North' Are Legitimately Concerned With Supporting Workers In The 'South'. They Also Fear That In Order To Compete With Cheap Imports Produced Using Child Labour, Hard Won Labour Standards In Their Own Countries Will Be Gradually Eroded.
Anti-Slavery International (Asi), Has Been Working On The Issue Of Child Labour For Over 20 Years. It Can Demonstrate, Perhaps More Than Most, A Long-Term Desire To See An End To The Exploitation Of Child Labour. For Many Reasons However, Asi Has Resisted Calls For Trade Sanctions. Although There Are Some Advantages In Linking Basic Human Rights Standards To International Trade Agreements, We Believe That With Regard To Child Labour There Are Signifcant Dangers Associated With This Approach.
Everyone Is Against 'Child Labour'  Mean?
When We Talk About 'Banning' Child Labour We May Be Talking About A Number Of Different Things. 'Child Labour' Is Generally Used In A Pejorative Sense, And Taken To Imply Some Form Of Exploitation. But Different Organisations And Different Societies Attach Different Meanings To The Phrase. Most
People Recognise That There Is Some Work That Children Pelform That Is Not Exploitative, And, Indeed, Is An Essential Part Of Growing Up. Most Will Also Agree That Certain Situations Are Totally Unacceptable. These Two Extremes However Will Always Be Separated By A Grey Area Which Is Difficult To Codify. In Some Languages There Is Great Difficulty , Even In Expressing This Range Of Meanings.
There Are Arguments About Ages (The Un Convention On The Rights Of The Child Defines A Child As Being Under 18 Years Of Age) And Different Stages Of Maturity; There Are Arguments About Culture And Stages Of Development; There Are Arguments About The Merits Of Formal Education As Compared With Work Experience. Table 1 Proposes A Hierarchy Of Child Labour Exploitation Based On Interpretations Of Key International Instruments. It Also Suggests Where The Priorities Should Lie When Designing Solutions To The Problem Of Working Children.
What Causes Child Labour?
Poverty - Child Labour Is Rooted In Poverty. In Many Cases Families Depend On A Child's Wages For Their Suivival.
Lack Of Alternatives - It Is Widely Acknowledged That The Provision Of Compulsoiy Prima Y Education Is The State' S Main Method Of Controlling Child Labour. But The Equation Is Not Quite That Simple. Schooling Must Be Affordable And Relevant To The Child's Circumstances, And Should Provide Practical Skills And Knowledge If It Is To Be Seen As A Worthwhile Investment By The Child's Family. Lack Of Awareness - Many People In Positions Of Responsibility May Not See Some Forms Of Child Labour, For Example Domestic Senice, As Exploitation. Children And Their Families May Also Be Unaware Of Their Rights. Cultural Traditions - The Worst Situations Occur Where It Is Children From Marginalised Groups Who Are Set To Work These Might Include: Former Slave Families; Indigenous Peoples; Forest Dwellers; Pastoralists And Other Nomads; Migrants; And 'Untouchables'. The Issue Of Child Labour Then Becomes Part Of A Much Wider Issue Of Discrimination And Disenfranchisement. In Many Countries Too, The Education Of Girls Is Seen As A Lower Priority Than That Of Boys, And Girls Are Set To Work Earlier Than Their Brothers.
Demand For Child Workers In The Labour Market - Children Represent A Cheap And Compliant Workforce. All Too Often There Are Those Who Are Prepared To Exploit Children For Profit.
The Implementation Of Trade Sanctions, As A Measure In Isolatlon, Addresses Only The Last Of These Issues; And It Is Only The Export Sector That Would Be Affected. The Economic Impact Might Even Exacerbate The Problem, Particulary In The Short-Term.
Laws - Solutions Or Obstacles?
National Laws And International Treaties Specify Minimum Ages For Light Work (12/13 Years), Normal Work (14/15 Years) And Dangerous Work (18 Years). Some Laws Are Drafted For Specific Industries, Such As Mining And Seafaring. However The Labour Laws In Many Countries Remain Unimplemented
Because Of Severe Economic Conditions And Prevailing Social Attitudes. In Some Cases The Laws Are So Unrealistic That They Are Impossible To Implement. In Particular, The Lack Of Compulsory Birth Registration Means That The Ages Of Children Cannot Be Verified In Work Situations. In Addition They Sometimes Fail To Address The Informal Sector It Is Often In Small Workshops, Agriculture, Domesdc Service, Begging And Prostitution That The Worst Forms Of Child Labour Are To Be Found.
The Mere Presence Of Labour Laws May Mean That There Are No Statistics And No Registers Of Working Children, Because What They Are Doing Is Illegal. This Clearly Impedes The Formulation Of Programmes Intended To Help Such Children.
Trade Sanctions Will Have The Most Serious Effect On Those Countries Where Information Is Readily Available. This May Well Lead Governments And Employers To Try To Conceal The Problem And Drive It Further Underground.
Child Labour In The Export Sector
In Countries Undergoing Transformation From An Agricultural To An Industrial Economy, Children Are Increasingly Being Sucked Into The Urban Centres To Work. The Fact That They Are Migrants And Often Separated From Their Parents Makes Them Particularly Vulnerable To Exploitation. There Have Been Many Reports, Some By Anti-Slavery International, Detailing The Exploitation Of Children Working In Manufacturing And Service Industries And In Domestic Work. The Export Sector Is No Different In This Respect: Children Are Used In Many Countries For The Production Of Goods Such As Shoes, Textiles And Clothing, Which Are Sold In Foreign Markets.
The Direct Link To The Consumer In The 'North' Has Made The Export Sector The Inevitable Focus Of International Condemnation. In Tackling Child Labour, However, It Would Be Wrong To Assume That The Exploitation In This Sector Is Greater Than In Other Areas, Or That It Can Be Dealt With Separately From The Rest Of The Economy.
There Is Some Evidence To Suggest That Working Conditions In The Export Sector May, If Anything, Be Better Than Elsewhere. There Are Several Reasons For This. Flrstly This Sector Tends To Be More Profitable; Wages Are Therefore Usually Higher, And Equipment Better. Secondly Some Multinational Companies Working In This Sector Have Had A Positive Influence (See Recommendations Below), Providing For Example On-Site Education And Creche Facilities.
If We Are To Eliminate Child Labour We Must Look Not Only At The Export Sector But At The Economy As A Whole, Including The Service Sector And All Manufacturing Industries. Trade Sanctions Will Only Directly Affect The Export Sector. Without An Improvement In Education Facilities And General Economic Conditions, Forcing Children Out Of The These Industries Might Result In Their Working In Worse Conditions. Implementing Trade Sanctions Might Salve The Consciences Of Consumers In The 'North', But Ultimately May Not Be In The Best Interests Of The Children Involved (Article 3, Un Convention On The Rights Of The Child).
Moreover, Such Measures Create A Climate Of Hostility That May Damage National Campagns To Address The Problem.
Conclusions
Child Labour Is A Complex Problem Which Demands A Range Of Solutions And Sensitive Treatment. The Curlent Debate About Trade Sanctions Tends Toover-Sirnplify The Sinuation And To Ignore The Many Issues Involved. The Debate Must Take Account Of The Limited Effectiveness Of Trade Sanctions In Combating Child Labour. Including Trade Sanctions Within The Terms Of Any Çsocial Clauseè Of International Trade Agreements Must Be Seen As A Last Resort; And Their Implementation Should Apply Only To The Worst Situations. The International Community Must Take Greater Responsibility For Funding Local Programmes That Will Tackle The Root Causes Of Child Labour.
What Can We Do ?
•    Child Slavery Should Be The First Priority For Abolition (See Table 1). There Is Evidence That Some Children Falling Into This Category Are Involved In Producing Goods For Export. Many Governments Have Not Taken Action To Address This Situation And Some Even Refuse To Acknowledge That It Exists.
•    Where There Is Evidence Of Forced Or Slave Labour, And Where Govemments  Have Failed To Take Action To Address The Problem, Anti-Slavery Intenational  Supports The Use Of  Trade Sanctions To Bring About The Eradication Of Practices Prohibited By The Un's 1956 Supplementary Slavery  Convention And Ilo Conventions Nos. 29 And 105.
•    Consumers In 'Northern' Markets Have A Right Not To Buy Products Made By Exploited Children. However, We Believe That Blanket Bans Of The Imports Of Goods Produced By Child Labour Might Result In Greater Exploitation. We Advocate Instead:
•    Product-Labelling That Identifies Those Items That Are Confirmed To Be Free Of Child Labour.
•    Encouraging Multinational Companies To Adopt And Enforce Codes Of Conduct, Either Directly Or Through Their Sub-Contractors. Wherever Practical, Training, Education And Creche Facilities Should Be Provided. The Companies Should Also Actively Engage In The Labour Rights Debate In The Countries Where They Operate.
•    Encouraging All Importers And Retailers To Insist That Their Suppliers Adopt The Minimum International Standards On Child Labour And To Set Up Effective Monitoring Procedures.
•    Child Labour Will Only Be Eliminated Through Long-Term, National Programmes That Involve The Broad Support Of The Populace And Address All The Causal Factors. The International Comununity Must Support These Movements By:
•    Better Targeting Of Development Aid To Help States Provide Primary Education. This Should Be Aimed At Marginalised Children And Other At-Risk Groups Such  As Children Working As Domestic Servants. Me Provision Of Job-Orientated Education, Education In The Workplace, Free School Meals Or Stipends To Parents To Replace The Child's Earnings May Be Necessary.
•    Encouraging Countries To Work With The Ilo And Unicef To Adopt Long-Term  Programmes Of Action Aimed At Reducing And Eventually Eradicating The Use Of  Child Labour.
•    Education Is The Key To Ending Child Labour. If Children Go To Schools They Are Less Likely To Work. A Better Education Also Means A Better Chance Of Getting A Good Job Later On.
•    Women Must Get Better Jobs So That They Can Escape Poverty And Their Children Don’t Have To Work.
•    Replace Child Workers With Adults .
•    Consumers Can Help By Refusing To Buy Products Made By Children. Sometimes There Is A Label On Clothes Or Other Items That Indicate Children Are Not Involved In Manufacturing Them.